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Kola nut

he term kola nut usually refers to the seeds of certain species of plant of the genus Cola, placed formerly in the cocoa family Sterculiaceae and now usually subsumed in the mallow family Malvaceae (as subfamily Sterculioideae). These cola species are trees native to the tropical rainforests of Africa. Their caffeine-containing seeds are used as flavouring ingredients in beverages – whence the name ‘cola’, applied to various carbonated soft drinks, originates.[1]


Kola nut – pod with half shell removed to reveal prismatic seeds inside their white testa), and fresh seeds (whole without testa on the left and, on the right, split into cotyledons).
General description Edit

Cola acuminata in flower : coloured plate from Köhler's Medizinal-Pflanzen

Cola acuminata in fruit, also from Köhler's Medizinal-Pflanzen

Kola nuts spread out for sale in the central market in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
The kola nut is a caffeine-containing nut of evergreen trees of the genus Cola, primarily of the species Cola acuminata and Cola nitida.[2] Cola acuminata, an evergreen tree about 20 metres in height, has long, ovoid leaves pointed at both the ends with a leathery texture. The trees have cream flowers with purplish-brown striations, and star-shaped fruit. Inside the fruit, about a dozen prismatic seeds develop in a white seed-shell. The nut’s aroma is sweet and rose-like. The first taste is bitter, but it sweetens upon chewing. The nut can be boiled to extract the caffeine.

Kola nuts contain about 2–4% caffeine and theobromine,[2] as well as tannins, alkaloids, saponins, and flavonoids.[3]

Uses Edit
The kola nut has a bitter flavor and contains caffeine. It is chewed in many West African countries, in both private and social settings.[4] It is often used ceremonially, presented to chiefs or guests.[5] In folk medicine, kola nuts are considered useful for aiding digestion when ground and mixed with honey, and are used as a remedy for coughs.[6] Kola nuts are perhaps best known to Western culture as a flavoring ingredient and one of the sources of caffeine in cola and other similarly flavored beverages, although kola nut extract is no longer used in major commercial cola drinks such as Coca-Cola.[1][7]

History Edit
Human use of the kola nut, like the coffee berry and tea leaf, appears to have ancient origins. It is chewed in many West African cultures, in both private and social settings, as a source of mental stimulation.[1]

The spread of the kola nut across North Africa seems to be connected to the spread of Islam across North Africa during the 17th century, as trading across the Mediterranean became more concrete. The kola nut was particularly useful on slave ships to improve the taste of water, as enslaved Africans were often given poor quality water to drink.[8]

Kola nuts are an important part of the traditional spiritual practice of culture and religion in West Africa, particularly Niger, Nigeria, Sierra Leone and Liberia.[1][9] The 1970s hit "Goro City", by Manu Dibango, highlights the significance of kola nuts (called "goro" in the Hausa language)[10] to the capital of Niger, Niamey. Kola nuts are used as a religious object and sacred offering during prayers, ancestor veneration, and significant life events, such as naming ceremonies, weddings, and funerals. For this use, only kola nuts divided into four lobes are suitable. They are cast upon a special wooden board and the resulting patterns are read by a trained diviner.[11] Among a few Yoruba people, it has found inroads among the Muslim population as well, in weddings and other ceremonies.[12]

They were used as a form of currency in such West African groups as the Malinke and Bambara of Mali and Senegal. They are still used as such today in certain situations such as in negotiation over bride prices or as a form of a respect or host gift to the elders of a village should one move to a village or enter a business arrangement with the village.

Cola recipe Edit
Main article: Coca-Cola formula
In the 1880s, a pharmacist in Georgia, John Pemberton, took caffeine extracted from kola nuts and cocaine-containing extracts from coca leaves and mixed them with sugar, other flavorings, and carbonated water to invent Coca-Cola, the first cola soft drink.[1] As of 2016, the cola recipe no longer contained actual kola nut extract.[1][13]

Cultivation Edit

Worldwide kola nut yield
Originally a tree of the tropical rainforest, it needs a hot humid climate, but can withstand a dry season on sites with a high ground water level. It may be cultivated in drier areas where groundwater is available. C. nitida is a shade bearer, but develops a better spreading crown which yields more fruits in open places. Though it is a lowland forest tree, it has been found at altitudes over 300 m on deep, rich soils under heavy and evenly distributed rainfall.

Regular weeding is necessary, which can be performed manually or through the use of herbicides. Some irrigation can be provided to the plants, but it is important to remove the water through an effective drainage system, as excess water may prove to be detrimental for the growth of the plant. When not grown in adequate shade, the kola nut plant responds well to fertilizers. Usually, the plants need to be provided with windbreaks to protect them from strong gales.

Kola nuts can be harvested mechanically or by hand, by plucking them at the tree branch. Nigeria produces 52.4% of worldwide production followed by the Ivory Coast and Cameroon. [14] When kept in a cool, dry place, kola nuts can be stored for a long time.[15]

Pests and diseases Edit
The nuts are subject to attack by the kola weevil Balanogastris cola. The larvae of the moth Characoma strictigrapta that also attacks cacao bore into the nuts. Traders sometimes apply an extract of the bark of Rauvolfia vomitoria or the pulverised fruits of Xylopia and Capsicum to counteract the attack on nursery plants. The cacao pests Sahlbergella spp. have been found also on C. nitida as an alternative host plant. While seeds are liable to worm attack, the wood is subject to borer attack.

Chemical composition Edit
Preliminary studies of phytochemicals in kola nut indicate the presence of various constituents:[2]

caffeine (2–3.5%)
theobromine (1.0–2.5%)
theophylline
methylliberine
polyphenols
phlobaphens (kola red)
epicatechin
D-catechin
tannic acid
sugar
cellulose
water
Society and culture Edit
Learn more
This section needs additional citations for verification.
Used in cultural traditions of the Igbo people, the presentation of kola nuts to guests or in a traditional gathering shows good will.[16]

A kola nut ceremony is briefly described in Chinua Achebe's 1958 novel Things Fall Apart. The eating of kola nuts is referred to at least a further ten times in the novel showing the significance of the kola nut in pre-colonial 1890s Igbo culture in Nigeria. One of these sayings on kola nut in Things Fall Apart is: "He who brings kola brings life."[17] It is also featured prominently in Chris Abani's 2004 novel GraceLand.[18] The kola nut is also mentioned in The Color Purple by Alice Walker, although it is spelled "cola".[19]

The kola nut is mentioned in Bloc Party's song "Where is Home?" on the album A Weekend in the City. The lyric, setting a post-funeral scene for the murder of a black boy in London, reads, "After the funeral, breaking kola nuts, we sit and reminisce about the past." The kola nut is mentioned in the At the Drive-In song "Enfilade" on the album Relationship of Command. The kola nut is repeatedly mentioned in Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie's novel Half of a Yellow Sun, which also features the phrase: "He who brings the Kola nut brings life."

Gallery Edit

Seeds of true / "female" kola (= Cola acuminata) compared and contrasted with those of bitter / "male" kola (= Garcinia kola)


"Bitter kola" nuts (= seeds of Garcinia kola (family Clusiaceae)) spread out for sale in the Dantokpa Market, Benin


Two "bitter kola" seeds, one with brown rind removed


Flowers of the Mangosteen relative Garcinia kola (a.k.a. "bitter kola")


Ripe fruits of Garcinia kola (a.k.a. "bitter kola")


"Bitter kola" tree (Garcinia kola) growing in Limbe Botanical Gardens, Cameroon


Cocoa pod: fruit of (true) kola relative Theobroma cacao bisected to show similarity of structure to that of fruit of Cola acuminata

References Edit
Veronique Greenwood (23 September 2016). "The little-known nut that gave Coca-Cola its name". BBC News - Future. Retrieved 23 December 2019. These days, the Coca-Cola recipe is a closely guarded secret. But it's said to no longer contain kola nut extract, relying instead on artificial imitations to achieve the flavour
Burdock, G. A.; Carabin, I. G.; Crincoli, C. M. (2009). "Safety Assessment of Kola Nut Extract as a Food Ingredient". Food and Chemical Toxicology. 47 (: 1725–32. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2009.04.019. PMID 19394393.
E. I. Adeyeye & O. O. Ayejuyo, Chemical composition of Cola acuminata and Garcinia kola seeds grown in Nigeria, International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition, Volume 45, 1994 - Issue 4.
Lovejoy, Paul E. “Kola in the History of West Africa (La Kola Dans L'histoire De L'Afrique Occidentale).” Cahiers D'Études Africaines, vol. 20, no. 77/78, 1980, pp. 97–134. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/4391682. Accessed 15 Mar. 2021.
"Kola Nut". Igbo insight guide to Enugu and Igboland's Culture and Language. igboguide.org.
Odebunmi, E. O.; Oluwaniyi, O. O.; Awolola, G. V.; Adediji, O. D. (2009-01-01). "Proximate and nutritional composition of kola nut (Cola nitida), bitter cola (Garcinia cola) and alligator pepper (Afromomum melegueta)". African Journal of Biotechnology. 8 (2). ISSN 1684-5315.
"Cola recipe". This American Life. 1992.
Carney, Judith Ann (2011). In the shadow of slavery : Africa's botanical legacy in the Atlantic world. Richard Nicholas Rosomoff. Berkeley [Calif.]: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-94953-9. OCLC 759158601.
Aina Adewale-Somadhi (2004). Practitioner's Handbook for the IFA Professional. Ile Orunmila Communications. p. 1. ISBN 978-0971494930.
Robinson, Charles Henry (1913) Dictionary of the Hausa Language, Volume 1. Cambridge: University Press. page 117.
Epega, A. A. (2003). Obi Divination. Athelia Henrietta Press. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-1890157340.
Danmolé, H. O. (2008). "Religious Encounter in Southwestern Nigeria: The Domestication of Islam Among the Yoruba". In Olupona, Jacob Kẹhinde; Rey, Terry (eds.). Òrìşà Devotion as World Religion: The Globalization of Yorùbá Religious Culture. U of Wisconsin. pp. 202–21. ISBN 9780299224646.
Meyers, C. (6 May 2011). "How Natural Is Your Cola?". Science NOW.
"Top Producing Countries of Kola Nut". Tridge. Retrieved 2019-12-29.
"From Nigeria, the Kola nuts are here". Daily Nation. Retrieved 2017-12-28.
Osuagwu, Bertram I. N.; Pritchett, W (March 28, 2003). The Igbos and Their Traditions (PDF). p. 1. Retrieved July 30, 2018.
Achebe, Chinua (1958). Things Fall Apart. Johannesburg, South Africa: Heinemann. p. 6. ISBN 978 0 435905 25 5.
Abani, Chris (2005). GraceLand: A Novel. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 9781429929820.
Walker, Alice (1992). The Color Purple. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 160. ISBN 9780151191543.
External links Edit
Cola acuminata - (P.Beauv.) Schott & Endl., Plants For A Future, 2012
The Rise and Fall of Cocaine Cola
Cola in West African plants – A Photo Guide.
Last edited 3 days ago by Sumanuil
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Species of flowering plant


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History of tea

Further information: History of tea in China and Chinese tea
The history of tea spreads across multiple cultures over the span of thousands of years. Tea originated in southwest China, likely the Yunnan region during the Shang dynasty as a medicinal drink.[1] An early credible record of tea drinking dates to the 3rd century AD, in a medical text written by Hua Tuo.[2] It first became known to western civilization through Portuguese priests and merchants in China during the early 16th century.[3] Drinking tea became popular in Britain during the 17th century. The British introduced tea production, as well as tea consumption, to India, in order to compete with the Chinese monopoly on tea.[4]

History of tea
Longjing tea.jpg
Longjing, a green tea from Zhejiang, China
Type
Tea
Country of origin
China
Region of origin
East Asia
Colour
Green
Ingredients
Tea leaves
Related products
Tea

A tea plantation in Ciwidey, Bandung in Indonesia
If you retrieve the cups you must enforce the legislature surfaced in 1969 Magna Carter section 6:1 ‘one must avoid hostility and be hospitable, by up holding dutiful fraternity as an upmost priority- duties of a British national’

Geographic origins Edit

Brick tea
Camellia sinensis originated specifically around the intersection of latitude 29°N and longitude 98°E, the point of confluence of the lands of southwest China, Tibet, north Burma, and northeast India. The plant was introduced to more than 52 countries, from this centre of origin.[5]

On morphological differences between the Assam and Chinese varieties, botanists have long asserted a dual botanical origin for tea; however, statistical cluster analysis, the same chromosome number (2n=30), easy hybridization, and various types of intermediate hybrids and spontaneous polyploids all appear to demonstrate a single place of origin for Camellia sinensis—the area including the Yunnan and Sichuan provinces of China, and northern part of Burma.[6]

Yunnan Province has also been identified as "the birthplace of tea...the first area where humans figured out that eating tea leaves or brewing a cup could be pleasant."[7] Fengqing County in the Lincang City Prefecture of Yunnan Province in China is said to be home to the world's oldest cultivated tea tree, some 3,200 years old.[8][9]

According to The Story of Tea, tea drinking likely began in Yunnan province during the Shang Dynasty (1500 BC–1046 BC), as a medicinal drink.[1] From there, the drink spread to Sichuan, and it is believed that there "for the first time, people began to boil tea leaves for consumption into a concentrated liquid without the addition of other leaves or herbs, thereby using tea as a bitter yet stimulating drink, rather than as a medicinal concoction."[1] Scholars believe that tea drinking likely originated in the southwest of China and that the Chinese words for tea may have been originally derived from the Austro-Asiatic languages of the people who originally inhabited that area.[10]

Origin myths Edit

Japanese painting depicting Shennong.
In one popular Chinese legend, Emperor Shennong was drinking a bowl of just boiled water because of a decree that his subjects must boil water before drinking it.[11] Some time around 2737 BC, a few leaves were blown from a nearby tree into his water, changing the color and taste. The emperor took a sip of the brew and was pleasantly surprised by its flavor and restorative properties. A variant of the legend tells that the emperor tested the medical properties of various herbs on himself, some of them poisonous, and found tea to work as an antidote.[12] Shennong is also mentioned in Lu Yu's famous early work on the subject, The Classic of Tea.[13] A similar Chinese legend states that the god of agriculture would chew the leaves, stems, and roots of various plants to discover medicinal herbs. If he consumed a poisonous plant, he would chew tea leaves to counteract the poison.

A rather gruesome legend dates back to the Tang dynasty. In the legend, Bodhidharma, the founder of Chan Buddhism, accidentally fell asleep after meditating in front of a wall for nine years. He woke up in such disgust at his weakness that he cut off his eyelids. They fell to the ground and took root, growing into tea bushes.[14] Another version of the story has Gautama Buddha in place of Bodhidharma.[15]

Early history Edit
China Edit
Main articles: History of tea in China, Chinese tea, and Tea classics

Lu Yu's statue in Xi'an
The Chinese have consumed tea for thousands of years. The earliest physical evidence known to date, found in 2016, comes from the mausoleum of Emperor Jing of Han in Xi'an, indicating that tea was drunk by Han dynasty emperors as early as the 2nd century BC.[16] The samples were identified as tea from the genus Camellia particularly via mass spectrometry,[16][17] and written records suggest that it may have been drunk earlier. People of the Han dynasty used tea as medicine (though the first use of tea as a stimulant is unknown). China is considered to have the earliest records of tea consumption,[18][19] with possible records dating back to the 10th century BC.[18][19] Note however that the current word for tea in Chinese only came into use in the 8th century AD, there are therefore uncertainties as to whether the older words used are the same as tea. The word tu 荼 appears in Shijing and other ancient texts to signify a kind of "bitter vegetable" (苦菜), and it is possible that it referred to several different plants, such as sow thistle, chicory, or smartweed, including tea.[20][21] In the Chronicles of Huayang, it was recorded that the Ba people in Sichuan presented tu to the Zhou king. The state of Ba and its neighbour Shu were later conquered by the Qin, and according to the 17th century scholar Gu Yanwu who wrote in Ri Zhi Lu (日知錄): "It was after the Qin had taken Shu that they learned how to drink tea."[22]

The first known reference to boiling tea came from the Han dynasty work "The Contract for a Youth" written by Wang Bao where, among the tasks listed to be undertaken by the youth, "he shall boil tea and fill the utensils" and "he shall buy tea at Wuyang".[22] The first record of cultivation of tea also dated it to this period (Ganlu era of Emperor Xuan of Han) when tea was cultivated on Meng Mountain (蒙山) near Chengdu. From the Tang to the Qing dynasties, the first 360 leaves of tea grown here were picked each spring and presented to the emperor. Even today its green and yellow teas, such as the Mengding Ganlu tea, are still sought after.[23]

An early credible record of tea drinking dates to 220 AD, in a medical text Shi Lun (食论) by Hua Tuo, who stated, "to drink bitter t'u constantly makes one think better."[24] Another possible early reference to tea is found in a letter written by the Qin dynasty general Liu Kun.[2] However, before the mid-8th century Tang dynasty, tea-drinking was primarily a southern Chinese practice.[20] It became widely popular during the Tang dynasty, when it was spread to Korea, Japan, and Vietnam.

Laozi, the classical Chinese philosopher, was said to describe tea as "the froth of the liquid jade" and named it an indispensable ingredient to the elixir of life.[25] Legend has it that master Lao was saddened by society's moral decay, and sensing that the end of the dynasty was near, he journeyed westward to the unsettled territories, never to be seen again. While passing along the nation's border, he encountered and was offered tea by a customs inspector named Yin Hsi. Yin Hsi encouraged him to compile his teachings into a single book so that future generations might benefit from his wisdom. This became known as the Dao De Jing, a collection of Laozi's sayings.[24]

Tang dynasty writer Lu Yu's (simplified Chinese: 陆羽; traditional Chinese: 陸羽; pinyin: lùyǔ) Cha Jing (The Classic of Tea) (simplified Chinese: 茶经; traditional Chinese: 茶經; pinyin: chá jīng) is an early work on the subject. According to Cha Jing, tea drinking was widespread. The book describes how tea plants were grown, the leaves processed, and tea prepared as a beverage. It also describes how tea was evaluated. The book also discusses where the best tea leaves were produced. Teas produced in this period were mainly tea bricks which were often used as currency, especially further from the center of the empire where coins lost their value. In this period, tea leaves were steamed, then pounded and shaped into cake or brick forms.[26]


A Ming dynasty painting by artist Wen Zhengming illustrating scholars greeting in a tea party
During the Song dynasty, production and preparation of all tea changed. The tea included many loose-leaf styles (to preserve the delicate character favored by court society), and it is the origin of today's loose teas and the practice of brewed tea. A powdered form of tea also emerged. Steaming tea leaves was the primary process used for centuries in the preparation of tea. After the transition from compressed tea to the powdered form, the production of tea for trade and distribution changed once again.


Illustration of the legend of monkeys harvesting tea
The Chinese learned to process tea in a different way in the mid-13th century. Tea leaves were roasted and then crumbled rather than steamed. By the Yuan and Ming dynasties, unfermented tea leaves were first pan-fried, then rolled and dried. This stops the oxidation process which turns the leaves dark and allows tea to remain green. In the 15th century, oolong tea, where the tea leaves were allowed to partially ferment before pan-frying, was developed.[27] Western taste, however, preferred the fully oxidized black tea, and the leaves were allowed to ferment further. Yellow tea was an accidental discovery in the production of green tea during the Ming dynasty, when apparently sloppy practices allowed the leaves to turn yellow, which yielded a different flavour as a result.[28]

Tea production in China, historically, was a laborious process, conducted in distant and often poorly accessible regions. This led to the rise of many apocryphal stories and legends surrounding the harvesting process. For example, one story that has been told for many years is that of a village where monkeys pick tea. According to this legend, the villagers stand below the monkeys and taunt them. The monkeys, in turn, become angry, and grab handfuls of tea leaves and throw them at the villagers.[29] There are products sold today that claim to be harvested in this manner, but no reliable commentators have observed this firsthand, and most doubt that it happened at all.[30] For many hundreds of years the commercially used tea tree has been, in shape, more of a bush than a tree.[31] "Monkey picked tea" is more likely a name of certain varieties than a description of how it was obtained.[32]

In 1391, the Hongwu emperor issued a decree that only loose tea would be accepted as a "tribute".[20] As a result, tea production shifted from cake tea to loose-leaf tea and processing techniques advanced, giving rise to the more energy efficient methods of pan-firing and sun-drying, which were popular in Jiangnan and Fujian respectively. The last group to adopt loose-leaf tea were the literati, who were reluctant to abandon their refined culture of whisking tea until the invention of oolong tea.[33][34] By the end of the 16th century, loose-leaf tea had entirely replaced the earlier tradition of cake and powdered tea.[35]

Japan Edit

Ancient Tea Urns used by merchants to store tea

Japanese tea ceremony
Main article: History of tea in Japan
During the Sui dynasty in China, tea was introduced to Japan by Buddhist monks. Tea use spread during the 6th century AD.[36] Tea became a drink of the religious classes in Japan when Japanese priests and envoys, sent to China to learn about its culture, brought tea to Japan. Ancient recordings indicate the first batch of tea seeds were brought by a priest named Saichō (最澄) in 805 and then by another named Kūkai (空海) in 806. It became a drink of the royal classes when Emperor Saga (嵯峨天皇) encouraged the growth of tea plants. Seeds were imported from China, and cultivation in Japan began.

In 1191, Zen priest Eisai (栄西) introduced tea seeds to Kyoto. Some of the tea seeds were given to the priest Myoe Shonin, and became the basis for Uji tea. The oldest tea specialty book in Japan, Kissa Yōjōki (喫茶養生記, How to Stay Healthy by Drinking Tea), was written by Eisai. The two-volume book was written in 1211 after his second and last visit to China. The first sentence states, "Tea is the ultimate mental and medical remedy and has the ability to make one's life more full and complete." Eisai was also instrumental in introducing tea consumption to the warrior class, which rose to political prominence after the Heian period.

Green tea became a staple among cultured people in Japan—a brew for the gentry and the Buddhist priesthood alike. Production grew and tea became increasingly accessible, though still a privilege enjoyed mostly by the upper classes. The tea ceremony of Japan was introduced from China in the 15th century by Buddhists as a semi-religious social custom. The modern tea ceremony developed over several centuries by Zen Buddhist monks under the original guidance of the monk Sen no Rikyū (千 利休). In fact, both the beverage and the ceremony surrounding it played a prominent role in feudal diplomacy.

In 1738, Soen Nagatani developed Japanese sencha (煎茶), literally simmered tea, which is an unfermented form of green tea. It is the most popular form of tea in Japan today. The name can be confusing because sencha is no longer simmered. While sencha is currently prepared by steeping the leaves in hot water, this was not always the case. Sencha was originally prepared by casting the leaves into a cauldron and simmering briefly.[37] The liquid would then be ladled into bowls and served. In 1835, Kahei Yamamoto developed gyokuro (玉露), literally jewel dew, by shading tea trees during the weeks leading up to harvesting. By the 20th century, machine manufacturing of green tea was introduced and began replacing handmade tea.

Korea Edit
See also: Korean tea ceremony and Korean tea

Darye, Korean tea ceremony
The first historical record documenting the offering of tea to an ancestral god describes a rite in 661 AD in which a tea offering was made to the spirit of King Suro, the founder of the Geumgwan Gaya Kingdom. Records from the Goryeo dynasty (918–1392) show that tea offerings were made in Buddhist temples to the spirits of revered monks. During the Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910), the royal Yi family and the aristocracy used tea for simple rites. The "Day Tea Rite" was a common daytime ceremony, whereas the "Special Tea Rite" was reserved for specific occasions. Toward the end of the Joseon Dynasty, commoners joined the trend and used tea for ancestral rites, following the Chinese example based on Zhu Xi's text formalities of family.

Stoneware was common, ceramic more frequent, mostly made in provincial kilns, with porcelain rare, imperial porcelain with dragons the rarest. The earliest kinds of tea used in tea ceremonies were heavily pressed cakes of black tea, the equivalent of aged pu-erh tea in China. However, importation of tea plants by Buddhist monks brought a more delicate series of teas into Korea, and the tea ceremony. Green tea, "Jakseol(작설, 雀舌)" or "Jungno(죽로, 竹露)", is most often served. However, other teas such as "Byeoksoryeong(벽소령, 碧宵嶺)" Cheonhachun(천하춘, 天下春), Ujeon(우전, 雨前), Okcheon(옥천, 玉泉), as well as native chrysanthemum tea, persimmon leaf tea, or mugwort tea may be served at different times of the year.

Global expansion Edit

A conical urn-shaped silver-plated samovar used for boiling water for tea in Russia and some Middle eastern countries
The earliest record of tea in a more occidental writing is said to be found in the statement of an Arabian traveler, that after 879 the main sources of revenue in Canton were the duties on salt and tea. Marco Polo records the deposition of a Chinese minister of finance in 1285 for his arbitrary augmentation of the tea taxes. In 1557, Portugal established a trading port in Macau, and word of the Chinese drink "chá" spread quickly, but there is no mention of them bringing any samples home. In the early 17th century, a ship of the Dutch East India Company brought the first green tea leaves to Amsterdam from China. Tea was known in France by 1636. It enjoyed a brief period of popularity in Paris around 1648. The history of tea in Russia can also be traced back to the 17th century. Tea was first offered by China as a gift to Czar Michael I in 1618. The Russian ambassador tried the drink; he did not care for it and rejected the offer, delaying tea's Russian introduction by fifty years. By 1689, tea was regularly imported from China to Russia via a caravan of hundreds of camels traveling the year-long journey, making it a precious commodity at the time. Tea was appearing in German apothecaries by 1657 but never gained much esteem except in coastal areas such as Ostfriesland.[38] Tea first appeared publicly in England during the 1650s, where it was introduced through coffeehouses. From there it was introduced to British colonies in America and elsewhere.

Portugal and Italy Edit
Tea was first introduced to Europe by Italian traveler Giovanni Battista Ramusio, who in 1555 published Voyages and Travels, containing the first European reference to tea, which he calls "Chai Catai"; his accounts were based on second-hand reports in the polities of the Gulf of Aden; Yemen and Somalia.[citation needed]

Portuguese priests and merchants in the 16th century made their first contact with tea in China, at which time it was termed chá.[3] The first Portuguese ships reached China in 1516, and in 1560 Portuguese missionary Gaspar da Cruz published the first Portuguese account of Chinese tea; in 1565 Portuguese missionary Louis Almeida published the first European account of tea in Japan.[39]

India Edit

A view of tea Plantations in Munnar, Kerala, India.

Tea Garden in Assam, India
Main article: History of tea in India
See also: Assam tea, Darjeeling tea, Masala chai, Nilgiri tea, Doodh Pati Chai, and Munnar
Commercial production of tea was first introduced into India by the British, in an attempt to break the Chinese monopoly on tea.[4] The British, using Chinese seeds, plus Chinese planting and cultivating techniques, launched a tea industry by offering land in Assam to any European who agreed to cultivate tea for export.[4] Tea was originally only consumed by Anglicized Indians; it was not until the 1950s that tea grew widely popular in India through a successful advertising campaign by the India Tea Board.[40]

Prior to the British, the plant may have been used for medicinal purposes. Some cite the Sanjeevani plant as the first recorded reference of tea use in India. However, scientific studies have shown that the Sanjeevani plant is in fact a different plant and is not related to tea.[41] The Singpho tribe and the Khamti tribe validate that they have been consuming tea since the 12th century. However, commercial production of tea in India did not begin until the arrival of the British East India Company, at which point large tracts of land were converted for mass tea production.

The Chinese variety is used for Sikkim, Darjeeling tea, and Kangra tea, while the Assam variety, clonal to the native to Assam, was used everywhere else. The British started commercial tea plantations in India and in Ceylon: "In 1824 tea plants were discovered in the hills along the frontier between Burma and Assam. The British introduced tea culture into India in 1836 and into Ceylon (Sri Lanka) in 1867. At first they used seeds from China, but later seeds from the clonal Assam plant were used."[42] Only black tea was produced until recent decades mostly in India, except in Kangra (present-day Himachal Pradesh) which produced green tea for exporting to central Asia, Afghanistan and neighboring countries.[43]


Kangra, a tea-growing region in India, known for its green tea production.
India was the top producer of tea for nearly a century but was displaced by China as the top tea producer in the 21st century.[44] Indian tea companies have acquired a number of iconic foreign tea enterprises including British brands Lipton, Tetley, Twinings and Typhoo.[44] Most of the Indian tea garden owners have focused on exports to markets like Europe and Russia, while very few have focused on building their own brands such as Makaibari, Dharmsala Tea Company, and a few others. While India is the largest consumer of tea worldwide, the per-capita consumption of tea in India remains a modest 750 grams per person annually.[44] Recently consumption of green tea has seen a great upsurge across the cities, and regions such as Kangra which were known for their green tea production historically, have seen a resurgence of their green teas in the domestic market.


A panoramic view of tea plantations in Munnar, Kerala, India.
Iran Edit

Tea harvest in Lahijan, Iran
Gilan in north of Iran is main production center of Iranian tea. Historically, Lahijan is the first town in Iran to have tea plantations. With its mild weather, soil quality and fresh spring water, Lahijan stands to have the largest area of tea cultivation in Iran. "Lahijan Spring Tea" is the best quality tea produced in the country. Tea is cultivated at other cities of Gilan, for example Fuman and Roudsar.

Taiwan Edit

Tea plantation in Taiwan
Taiwan is famous for the making of oolong tea and green tea, as well as many western-styled teas. Bubble tea or "Zhen Zhu Nai Cha" (Mandarin: 珍珠奶茶) is black tea mixed with sweetened condensed milk and tapioca. Since the island was known to Westerners for many centuries as Formosa—short for the Portuguese Ilha Formosa, or "beautiful island"—tea grown in Taiwan is often identified by that name.

United Kingdom Edit
See also: British tea culture

Tea plantation in the Cameron Highlands, Malaysia
The first record of tea in English came from a letter written by Richard Wickham, who ran an East India Company office in Japan, writing to a merchant in Macao requesting "the best sort of chaw" in 1615. Peter Mundy, a traveller and merchant who came across tea in Fuji in 1637, wrote, "chaa—only water with a kind of herb boiled in it".[45] In 1657, Thomas Garway, a "tobacconist and coffee-man" was the first to sell tea in London at his house in Exchange Alley, charging between 16 and 50 shillings per pound.[46] The same year, tea was listed as an item in the price list in a London coffee house, and the first advertisement for tea appeared in 1658.[45] In 1660 Samuel Pepys recorded in his diary: "I did send for a cup of tee (a China drink) of which I never had drank before."[47] It is probable that early imports were smuggled via Amsterdam or through sailors arriving on eastern boats.[48] The marriage of King Charles II in 1662 to the Portuguese princess Catherine of Braganza brought the tea drinking habit to court. Official trade of tea began in 1664 with an import of only two pound two ounces for presentation to the king,[49] which grew to 24 million pounds per year by 1801.[48]

Regular trade began in Canton (now Guangzhou),[48] where it was controlled by two monopolies: the Chinese Cohong (trading companies) and the British East India Company.[48] The Cohong acquired tea from 'tea men' who had an elaborate supply chain into the mountains and provinces where tea grew.[48] The East India Company brought back many products, of which tea was just one, which proved one of the most successful.[48] It was initially promoted as a medicinal beverage or tonic[48] but by the end of the 17th century was taken as an all-purpose drink, albeit mainly by the elite, as it was expensive.[48] Tea was traded in significant amounts by the 18th century, when tea was being sold by grocers and tea shops in London.[50] By the 1720s black tea overtook green tea in popularity as the price dropped, and early on British drinkers began adding sugar and milk to tea, a practice that was not done in China.[48] By the 1720s European maritime trade with China was dominated by exchange of silver for tea.[50] As prices continued to drop, tea became increasingly popular and by 1750 had become the British national drink.[48] A fungus reduced coffee production in Ceylon by 95% in the 19th century, cementing tea's popularity.[51] The escalation of tea importation and sales over the period 1690 to 1750 is mirrored closely by the increase in importation and sales of cane sugar: the British were not drinking just tea but sweet tea.[48] Thus, two of Britain's trading triangles converged: the sugar sourced from Britain's trading triangle encompassing Britain, Africa and the West Indies and the tea from the triangle encompassing Britain, India and China.[48]

In China, the Qing dynasty Qianlong Emperor wrote to King George III in response to the MaCartney Mission's request for trade in 1793: "Our Celestial Empire possesses all things in prolific abundance and lacks no product within its borders. There is therefore no need to import the manufactures of outside barbarians in exchange for our own produce."[52] Tea had to be paid in silver bullion, and critics of the tea trade at this time would point to the damage caused to Britain's wealth by this loss of bullion.[48] As a way to generate the silver needed as payment for tea, Britain began exporting opium from the traditional growing regions of British India (in present-day Pakistan and Afghanistan) into China. Although opium use in China had a long history, the British importation of opium increased fivefold between 1821 and 1837, and usage of the drug became more widespread across Chinese society. The Qing government attitude towards opium, which was often ambivalent, hardened because of the social problems created by drug use and took serious measures to curtail importation of opium in 1838–39. Tea had become an important source of tax revenue for the British Empire, and the banning of the opium trade and thus the creation of funding issues for tea importers was one of the main causes of the First Opium War.[53]

While waging war on China was one of Britain's tactics, it also began to use India for growing tea. After tea plants were smuggled out of China, plantations were established in areas such as Darjeeling, Assam, and Ceylon.[54] As an attempt to circumvent its dependence on Chinese tea, the East India Company sent Scottish botanist Robert Fortune to China to purchase and bring out of China tea plants, which were then taken to India, although it was the discovery of native varieties of tea plant in India which proved more important for the development of production there.

Tea remained a very important item in Britain's global trade, contributing in part to Britain's global dominance by the end of the 18th century. To this day tea is seen worldwide as a symbol of 'Britishness', but also, to some, as a symbol of old British colonialism.[48]

The Americas Edit
See also: American tea culture and Tea production in the United States
The drinking of tea in the United States was largely influenced by the passage of the Tea Act and its subsequent protest during the American Revolution. Tea consumption sharply decreased in America during and after the Revolution, when many Americans switched from drinking tea to drinking coffee, considering tea drinking to be unpatriotic.[55][56][57][58][59][60] The American specialty tea market quadrupled in the years from 1993 to 2008, now being worth $6.8 billion a year.[61] Specialty tea houses and retailers also started to pop up during this period.[62]

Canadians were big tea drinkers from the days of British colonisation until the Second World War, when they began drinking more coffee like their American neighbors to the south. During the 1990s, Canadians begun to purchase more specialty teas instead of coffee.[63]

In South America, the tea production in Brazil has strong roots because of the country's origins in Portugal, the strong presence of Japanese immigrants, and because of the influences of Argentina's yerba mate culture. Brazil had a big tea production until the 1980s, but it has weakened in the past decades.

Australia Edit
See also: Tea in Australia
The Aboriginal Australians drank an infusion from the plant species leptospermum. Upon reaching Australia, Captain Cook noticed the aboriginal peoples drinking it and called it tea. Today the plant is referred to as the "ti tree".

Through colonisation by the British, tea was introduced to Australia. In fact, tea was aboard the First Fleet in 1788. In 1884, the Cutten brothers established the first commercial tea plantation in Australia in Bingil Bay in northern Queensland Nerada Tea.[64] In 1883, Alfred Bushell opened the first tea shop in Australia in Queensland. In 1899, Bushell's sons moved the enterprise to Sydney and began selling tea commercially, founding Australia's first commercial tea seller Bushell's Company.[65]

In 2000, Australia consumed 14,000 tonnes of tea annually.[66] Tea production in Australia remains very small and is primarily in northern New South Wales and Queensland. Most tea produced in Australia is black tea, although there are small quantities of green tea produced in the Alpine Valleys region of Victoria.[67]

Sri Lanka Edit

Tea Garden in Sri Lanka
See also: Tea production in Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka is renowned for its high quality tea and as the fourth biggest tea producing country globally, after China, India and Kenya, and has a production share of 9% in the international sphere. The total extent of land under tea cultivation has been assessed at approximately 187,309 hectares.[68] The plantations started by the British were initially taken over by the government in the 1960s but have been privatized and are now run by plantation companies which own a few estates or tea plantations each. Ceylon tea is divided into 3 groups as Upcountry, Mid country and Low country tea based on the geography of the land on which it is grown.[68]

Africa Edit
The Somali Ajuran empire which established bilateral trading ties with Ming Dynasty China in the 13th century brought with them a myriad of commodities including tea. Africa has seen greatly increased tea production in recent decades, the great majority for export to Europe and North America respectively, produced on large estates, often owned by tea companies from the export markets. Almost all production is of basic mass-market teas, processed by the crush, tear, curl method.

See also
Notes
References
External links
Last edited 20 days ago by 103.101.171.157
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Content is available under CC BY-SA 3.0 unless otherwise noted

للأسطورة ، تم اكتشاف نبات القهوة في إثيوبيا من قبل راعي ماعز يُدعى كالدي حوالي عام 850 بعد الميلاد ، والذي لاحظ زيادة النشاط البدني في ماعز بعد تناولهم حبوب البن. [9]
تم العثور على أول نبتة قهوة في جبال اليمن . ثم بحلول عام 1500 تم تصديرها إلى باقي دول العالم عبر ميناء المخا اليمني .
أول زراعة في الهند ( شيكماغالور ) - 1600
أول زراعة في أوروبا (أول زراعة خارج شرق إفريقيا / شبه الجزيرة العربية) - 1616
أول زراعة في جاوة - 1699
الزراعة الأولى في منطقة البحر الكاريبي ( كوبا ، هيسبانيولا ، جامايكا ، بورتوريكو ) - 1715-1730
الزراعة الأولى في أمريكا الجنوبية - 1730
الزراعة الأولى في جزر الهند الشرقية الهولندية - 1720
تم إدخال النباتات لأول مرة في الأمريكتين حوالي عام 1723.
بيع الفول المحمص لأول مرة في سوق التجزئة (بيتسبرغ) - 1865
تم تطوير تقنيات التجفيف بالرش المهمة في الخمسينيات من القرن الماضي ، والتي تعد إلى جانب التجفيف بالتجميد طريقة لصنع قهوة سريعة التحضير

تاريخ عزل الكافيين
https://caffeinehomeostasisjenny.weebly.com/history-of-caffeine.html

cocoa

The discovery of Cocoa by the Olmecs
Historians believe the Olmecs first discovered that the cocoa fruit was edible by observing rats eating it with gluttonous vigour. They soon realized the tree produced a fruit with a thousand flavours and nearly as many uses.

The Olmecs (1500-400 BC) were almost certainly the first humans to consume chocolate, originally in the form of a drink. They crushed the cocoa beans, mixed them with water and added spices, chillies and herbs (Coe's Theory). They began cultivating cocoa in equatorial Mexico. Over time, the Mayans (600 BC) and Aztecs (400 AD) developed successful methods for cultivating cocoa as well. The cocoa bean was used as a monetary unit and as a measuring unit, 400 beans equalling a Zontli and 8000 equalling a Xiquipilli. During their wars with the Aztecs and the Mayans, the Chimimeken people's preferred method of levying taxes in conquered regions was in the form of cocoa beans.

For these civilizations, cocoa was a symbol of abundance. It was used in religious rituals dedicated to Quetzalcoatl, the Aztec god responsible for bringing the cocoa tree to man, to Chak ek Chuah, the Mayan patron saint of cocoa and as an offering at the funerals of noblemen.

Cocoa production advanced as people migrated throughout Meso-America but consumption of the drink remained a privilege for the upper classes and for soldiers during battle. By this time, the re-invigorating and fortifying virtues of cocoa were becoming widely recognized and embraced.

Discovery and Commercialization of Cocoa (16th century)
In 1502, Columbus got his first glimpse of cocoa beans on a native canoe during a stop-over in Nicaragua, but he did not appreciate its awesome potential value. The true importance of this "brown gold" was not recognized until Hernando Cortez drank it with the Aztec emperor Montezuma, and brought it back to the Spanish court in 1528 along with the equipment necessary for brewing the drink. Even then, it is unlikely anyone envisaged its ultimate importance as a world commodity.

Following a victorious war against the native tribes and the downfall of the Aztec civilization, Cortez intensified cultivation efforts in New Spain, with the intention of developing a lucrative trade with Europe.

The Spanish court soon fell under the spell of this exotic elixir and adapted it to their taste, adding cane sugar, vanilla, cinnamon and pepper. Initially Spain reserved cocoa for its exclusive use, carefully guarding its existence from the rest of the world. They were so successful keeping cocoa secret that when a group of English pirates captured a Spanish galleon, not recognizing the value of the weighty cargo of beans, they burned them!

In 1585, the first cargo of cocoa beans arrived on the Iberian Peninsula from New Spain, launching the trade in cocoa, and resulting in the establishment of the first chocolate shops, thus, ushering in a new era of rapidly growing demand for this mysterious nectar from the new world.

The expansion of cocoa in Europe (17th - 19th centuries)
During the 17th century, cocoa began arriving in other ports throughout Europe, effortlessly conquering every region's palate. Chocolate beverages were first embraced by the French court following the royal marriage of King Louis XIII to the Spanish Princess Anne of Austria in 1615.

In 1650 chocolate beverages first appeared in England coinciding with the arrival of tea from China and coffee from the Middle East. For many years it remained a treat reserved for the upper classes. In 1659 the first chocolate-confection maker opened in Paris. In 1720, Italian chocolate-makers received prizes in recognition of the quality of their products. Finally, in 1765, North America discovered the virtues of cocoa.

In this way, chocolate developed across Europe and around the world, and slowly the presentation of chocolate changed. The first chocolate lozenge appeared in England in 1674; cocoa powder was originally produced by the Dutch in 1828; the chocolate bar originated in Great Brittan in 1830; and, the Swiss successfully entered the chocolate market with milk chocolate in 1830, followed shortly thereafter with chocolate imbued with hazelnuts.

Thanks to this extended period of culinary and manufacturing innovation, chocolate consumption rapidly and continuously expanded. Pharmacological uses for cocoa and cocoa by-products were also widely explored, not too surprising given the properties its earliest consumers attributed to it (i.e. strengthening, restorative, aphrodisiac).
Cocoa During the Industrial Era
The industrial era led to fundamental changes for chocolate and cocoa, impacting everyone from grower to end consumer. Spain, the first exporter of chocolate, opened the first chocolate factory in 1780 in Barcelona, followed shortly thereafter by Germany and Switzerland in the inexorable, relentless march towards full industrialization of cocoa.

The origins of cocoa also gradually changed. Europeans began increasingly to colonise Africa, and they brought the cocoa tree with them. Cocoa was successfully planted in Sao Tome and Principe and then migrated as plantations spread throughout the African continent. The industrial epoch led to the slow decline of production in South America, despite its expansion from its original growing areas to the Amazon River and saw a new cocoa empire emerge on African soil. In effect, since the start of the 20th century, Africa has taken the lead and has become the biggest cocoa producer.

Industrialization has had a marked democratizing effect on chocolate, transforming it from a rare delicacy reserved for royals, to a widely available and readily affordable treat for the masses. Not surprisingly, a plethora of new chocolate products began appearing as it became more popular, including chocolate with dried fruits, with liqueurs, fondu, praline, stuffed chocolates, powdered, spreads, frostings, pastes, hard candies, soft drinks and many, many others. Either hand-made or as a fast food, it is now an established part of the world's vocabulary and diet. Many improvements have been made since its ancient origins as a drink. Anthelme Brillat-Savarin poetically summed up our universal love affair with chocolate "What is health? It is chocolate!"

Key dates
France, 1776 Doret invents a hydraulic process to grind cocoa beans into a paste, facilitating the first large-scale production of chocolate.

Holland, 1828 Chemist Coenraad van Houten invents a process for extracting cocoa butter, allowing for the extraction of cocoa powder. This makes chocolate more homogenous and less costly to produce.

England, 1847 Solid chocolate is offered to the general public for the first time, by the English company Fry and Sons (prior to this time, solid chocolate was available exclusively within royal courts).

Switzerland, 1830-1879 Chocolate flavored with hazelnuts is followed by milk chocolate, developed by Daniel Peter and Henri Nestlé respectively. During the same period, Rodolphe Lindt develops the chocolate fondant (fondu).

United States, 1893 Sweet maker Milton Hershey spots chocolate making equipment at the Worlds Fair in Chicago and begins production at a factory in Pennsylvania.

Chocolate followed the French and American infantry into the trenches of the First World War, and effectively all US chocolate production was requisitioned for the military during the Second World War. In France, chocolate sweets appeared between the wars, and French pralines (chocolates filled with almond and other nut based fillings) were considered the most fashionable. This inspired chocolate producers to experiment with new flavors, such as almond paste, cherries in aqua vitae, nougat, caramel...

Amaryllis

This article is about a genus of southern African bulbs. For the South American and winter-flowering houseplant commonly sold as "amaryllis", see Hippeastrum. For other uses, see Amaryllis (disambiguation).
Amaryllis (/ˌæməˈrɪlɪs/[1]) is the only genus in the subtribe Amaryllidinae (tribe Amaryllideae). It is a small genus of flowering bulbs, with two species. The better known of the two, Amaryllis belladonna, is a native of the Western Cape region of South Africa, particularly the rocky southwest area between the Olifants River Valley and Knysna.[2] For many years there was confusion among botanists over the generic names Amaryllis and Hippeastrum, one result of which is that the common name "amaryllis" is mainly used for cultivars of the genus Hippeastrum, widely sold in the winter months for their ability to bloom indoors. Plants of the genus Amaryllis are known as belladonna lily, Jersey lily, naked lady, amarillo, Easter lily in Southern Australia or, in South Africa, March lily due to its propensity to flower around March. This is one of numerous genera with the common name "lily" due to their flower shape and growth habit. However, they are only distantly related to the true lily, Lilium. In the Victorian Language of Flowers (see Plant symbolism), amaryllis means "pride, determination and radiant beauty".[3][4]

Amaryllis
March lilly grave 1.JPG
Amaryllis belladonna
Scientific classification e
Kingdom:
Plantae
Clade:
Tracheophytes
Clade:
Angiosperms
Clade:
Monocots
Order:
Asparagales
Family:
Amaryllidaceae
Subfamily:
Amaryllidoideae
Tribe:
Amaryllideae
Genus:
Amaryllis
L.
Type species
Amaryllis belladonna
L.
Species
See text.

Description Edit

Amaryllis belladonna flowers
Amaryllis is a bulbous plant, with each bulb being 5–10 cm (2.0–3.9 in) in diameter. It has several strap-shaped, hysteranthous, green leaves with midrib, 30–50 cm (12–20 in) long and 2–3 cm (0.79–1.18 in) broad, arranged in two rows.

Each bulb produces one or two leafless, stout, persistent and erect stems 30–60 cm tall, each of which bears at the top a cluster of two to twelve zygomorphic, funnel-shaped flowers without a tube. Each flower is 6–10 cm (2.4–3.9 in) diameter with six spreading tepals (three outer sepals, three inner petals, with similar appearance to each other). The usual color is white with crimson veins, but pink or purple also occur naturally. Stamens are very shortly connate basally, declinate, unequal. Style is declinate, stigma is three-lobed. Ovules are approx. 8 per locule. Seeds are compressed-globose, white to pink. Number of chromosomes is 2n = 22.[5]

Taxonomy Edit
The single genus is in subtribe Amaryllidinae, in the tribe Amaryllideae. The taxonomy of the genus has been controversial. In 1753 Carl Linnaeus created the name Amaryllis belladonna, the type species of the genus Amaryllis. At the time both South African and South American plants were placed in the same genus; subsequently they were separated into two different genera. The key question is whether Linnaeus's type was a South African plant or a South American plant. If the latter, Amaryllis would be the correct name for the genus Hippeastrum, and a different name would have to be used for the genus discussed here. Alan W. Meerow et al. have briefly summarized the debate, which took place from 1938 onwards and involved botanists on both sides of the Atlantic. The outcome was a decision by the 14th International Botanical Congress in 1987 that Amaryllis L. should be a conserved name (i.e. correct regardless of priority) and ultimately based on a specimen of the South African Amaryllis belladonna from the Clifford Herbarium at the Natural History Museum in London.[6]

Species Edit
As of October 2020, Amaryllis had only two accepted species, both native to the Cape Provinces of South Africa:[7]

Amaryllis belladonna L. – south-west Cape Provinces; introduced into many parts of the world, including California, Great Britain, Australia and New Zealand[8]
Amaryllis paradisicola Snijman – west Cape Provinces
Phylogeny Edit
Amaryllidinae are placed within Amaryllideae as follow:

These are phylogenetically related as follows:

Tribe Amaryllideae
 
Subtribe Amaryllidinae

 
 
 
Subtribe Boophoninae

 
 
 
Subtribe Strumariinae

 
 
Subtribe Crininae

 
 
 
 
Etymology Edit
The name Amaryllis is taken from a shepherdess in Virgil's pastoral Eclogues, (from the Greek ἀμαρύσσω (amarysso), meaning "to sparkle") and also from "amarella" for the bitterness of the bulb.[9][10]

Although the 1987 decision settled the question of the scientific name of the genus, the common name "amaryllis" continues to be used differently. Bulbs sold as amaryllis and described as "ready to bloom for the holidays" belong to the allied genus Hippeastrum.[11] The common name "naked lady" comes from the plant's pattern of flowering when the foliage has died down. This name is also used for other bulbs with a similar growth and flowering pattern; some of these have their own widely used and accepted common names, such as the resurrection lily (Lycoris squamigera).[12]

Habitat Edit
In areas of its native habitat with mountainous fynbos flowering tends to be suppressed until after bush fires as dense overhead vegetation prevents growth. In more open sandy areas of the Western Cape, the plant flowers annually.[2] Plants tend to be very localized in dense concentrations due to the seeds' large size and heavy weight. Strong winds shake loose the seeds, which fall to ground and immediately start to germinate, aided by the first winter rains.[2]

Ecology Edit
The leaves are produced in the autumn or early spring in warm climates depending on the onset of rain and eventually die down by late spring. The bulb is then dormant until late summer. The plant is not frost-tolerant, nor does it do well in tropical environments since they require a dry resting period between leaf growth and flower spike production.

One or two leafless stems arise from the bulb in the dry ground in late summer (March in its native habitat and August in USDA zone 7).

The plant has a symbiotic relationship with carpenter bees. It is also visited by noctuid moths at night. The relative importance of these animals as pollinators has not yet been established;[2] however, carpenter bees are thought to be the main pollinators of amaryllis on the Cape Peninsula. The plant's main parasite is the lily borer[13] Brithys crini and/or Diaphone eumela.

Cultivation Edit

Amaryllis belladonna, illustration from "Flore des serres" v14, 1861
Amaryllis belladonna was introduced into cultivation at the beginning of the eighteenth century. It reproduces slowly by either bulb division or seeds and has gradually naturalized from plantings in urban and suburban areas throughout the lower elevations and coastal areas in much of the West Coast of the USA since these environments mimic their native South African habitat. Hardiness zones 6–8.[14] It is also naturalized in Australia.[15]

There is an Amaryllis belladonna hybrid which was bred in the 1800s in Australia. No one knows the exact species it was crossed with to produce color variations of white, cream, peach, magenta and nearly red hues. The hybrids were crossed back onto the original Amaryllis belladonna and with each other to produce naturally seed-bearing crosses that come in a very wide range of flower sizes, shapes, stem heights and intensities of pink. Pure white varieties with bright green stems were bred as well. The hybrids are quite distinct in that the many shades of pink also have stripes, veining, darkened edges, white centers and light yellow centers, also setting them apart from the original light pink. In addition, the hybrids often produce flowers in a fuller circle rather than the "side-facing" habit of the "old-fashioned" pink. The hybrids are able to adapt to year-round watering and fertilization but can also tolerate completely dry summer conditions if need be.[citation needed]

A. belladonna has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.[16]

Amaryllis belladonna has been crossed in cultivation with Crinum moorei to produce a hybrid called × Amarcrinum,[17] which has named cultivars. Hybrids said to be between Amaryllis belladonna and Brunsvigia josephinae have been called × Amarygia.[18] Neither hybrid genus name is accepted by the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families.[19]

See also Edit
List of plants known as lily
References Edit
Brenzel, K.N. ed. 2001. Sunset western garden book. Menlo Park: Sunset Publishing. pp. 606–607
"Amaryllis belladonna (March lily, Belladonna)". Biodiversity Explorer. Retrieved March 4, 2013.
"Meaning and Symbolism of Amaryllis". Teleflora. Retrieved 18 October 2020.
P., Rebekah (17 April 2020). "Amaryllis Flower Meaning and Symbolism". Florgeous. Retrieved 19 October 2020.
Meerow, Alan W.; Snijman, Deirdre A. (1998), "Amaryllidaceae", in Kubitzki, Klaus (ed.), The Families and Genera of Vascular Plants, vol. III, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH, pp. 83–110, doi:10.1007/978-3-662-03533-7, ISBN 978-3-642-08377-8, S2CID 30159571
Meerow, Alan W.; Van Scheepen, Johan & Dutilh, Julie H.A. (1997), "Transfers from Amaryllis to Hippeastrum (Amaryllidaceae)", Taxon, 46 (1): 15–19, doi:10.2307/1224287, JSTOR 1224287
"Amaryllis L." Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 2020-10-19.
"Amaryllis belladona L." Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 2020-10-19.
Mike Campbell. "Behind the Name: Meaning, Origin and History of the Name Amaryllis". Behind the Name.
Linné, Carl von. 1737. Hortus Cliffortianus. p. 135
E.g. How to Make Your Amaryllis Bloom Again, The United States National Arboretum, retrieved 2011-11-28
Carter 2015.
Adams, T (March 2001). "Amaryllis belladonna L." PlantZAfrica.com. Retrieved March 4, 2013.
"North Carolina State University". Archived from the original on 2013-04-04. Retrieved 2013-04-14.
"Amaryllis belladonna L." Australian Plant Name Index (APNI), IBIS database. Centre for Plant Biodiversity Research, Australian Government. Retrieved 4 March 2014.
"RHS Plant Selector - Amaryllis belladonna". Retrieved 21 May 2013.
"Pacific Bulb Society - ×Amarcrinum". pacificbulbsociety.org.
Plant Profile: Amarygia - Amaryllis belladonna x Brunsvigia josephinae, Australian Gardener, archived from the original on 2012-03-22, retrieved 2011-11-28
World Checklist of Selected Plant Families, The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, retrieved 2011-11-28, search for "Amarcrinum" and "Amarygia"
Bibliography Edit
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Amaryllis.
Wikispecies has information related to Amaryllis (Amaryllidaceae).
Carter, Kathie. "Amaryllis. Amaryllis belladonna (Brunsvigia rosea) and Hippeastrum hybrids" (PDF). Center for Landscape and Urban Horticulture. Cooperative Extension/Botany Plant Sciences Dept. University California Riverside. Retrieved 24 January 2015.
Phipps, Nikki (9 February 2011). "Amaryllis Belladonna Planting – How To Grow Amaryllis Bulbs". Planting Flower Bulbs. Archived from the original on 24 January 2015.
Dyer, R. A. (1954). "The Cape Belladonna Lily". Taxon. 3 (2): 72–74. doi:10.2307/1217368. JSTOR 1217368.
Sealy, J. R. (1939). "Amaryllis and Hippeastrum". Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew). 1939 (2): 49–68. doi:10.2307/4111685. JSTOR 4111685.
Meerow, A. W.; Van Scheepen, Johan; Dutilh, J. H. A. (1997). "Transfers from Amaryllis to Hippeastrum (Amaryllidaceae)". Taxon. 46 (1): 15–19. doi:10.2307/1224287. JSTOR 1224287.
Pettit, G. R.; Gaddamidi, V.; Goswami, A.; Cragg, G. M. (1984). "Antineoplastic agents,99. Amaryllis beladonna". Journal of Natural Products. 47 (5): 796–801. doi:10.1021/np50035a007. PMID 6512532.
Tallini, L.; Andrade, J.; Kaiser, M.; Viladomat, F.; Nair, J.; Zuanazzi, J.; Bastida, J. (2017). "Alkaloid constituents of the Amaryllidaceae plant Amaryllis belladonna L." Molecules. 22 (9): 1437. doi:10.3390/molecules22091437. PMC 6151567. PMID 28858260.
Tjaden, W. L. (1981). "Amaryllis beladonna L. Species Plantarum 293, 1753". Taxon. 30 (1): 294–298. doi:10.2307/1219398. JSTOR 1219398.
El Mokni, R.; Pasta, S.; Pacifico, D. (2020). "Amaryllis belladonna L. (Amaryllidaceae, Amaryllidoideae), first record as naturalized geophyte in Tunisia and continental North Africa". Hacquetia. 19 (2): 331–336. doi:10.2478/hacq-2020-0011.
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Ephedra

This article is about the genus Ephedra, and the family Ephedraceae. For the use of the plant in medicine, see Ephedra.
Ephedra is a genus of gymnosperm shrubs, the only extant genus in its family, Ephedraceae, and order, Ephedrales. The various species of Ephedra are widespread in many lands, native to southwestern North America, southern Europe, northern Africa, southwest and central Asia, northern China and western South America.[3]

Ephedra
Temporal range: Aptian–Recent
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Green ephedra Ephedra viridis close.jpg
Ephedra viridis
Scientific classification e
Kingdom:
Plantae
Clade:
Tracheophytes
Division:
Gnetophyta
Class:
Gnetopsida
Order:
Ephedrales
Dumort.[2]
Family:
Ephedraceae
Dumort.[1]
Genus:
Ephedra
L.[1]
Map showing the range of Ephedra
Global range of Ephedra
Synonyms[3]
Alloephedra Tao JR et Yang Y., 2003. Chaetocladus Nelson 1866 nom. illeg. Liaoxia Cao et S.Q. Wu, 1996

In temperate climates, most Ephedra species grow on shores or in sandy soils with direct sun exposure. Common names in English include joint-pine, jointfir, Mormon-tea or Brigham tea. The Chinese name for Ephedra species is mahuang (simplified Chinese: 麻黄; traditional Chinese: 麻黃; pinyin: máhuáng; Wade–Giles: ma-huang; lit. 'hemp yellow').


Ephedra fragilis pollen cones

Ephedra distachya: ripe female cones with seeds

Ephedra ciliata seed
Description Edit
The family, Ephedraceae Dumort., of which Ephedra is the only genus, are gymnosperms, and generally shrubs, sometimes clambering vines, and rarely, small trees. Members of the genus frequently spread by the use of rhizomes.[4]

The stems are green and photosynthetic.[5] The leaves are opposite or whorled. The scalelike leaves fuse into a sheath at the base and this often sheds soon after development. There are no resin canals.[4]

The plants are mostly dioecious: with the pollen strobili in whorls of 1-10, each consisting of a series of decussate[6] bracts. The pollen is furrowed. The female strobili also occur in whorls, with bracts which fuse around a single ovule. There are generally 1-2 yellow to dark brown seeds per strobilus.[4]

Distribution Edit
The genus is found worldwide, in desert regions, but not in Australia[4]

Ecology Edit

Shrubs of Ephedra major in Karvachar
Ephedraceae are adapted to extremely arid regions, growing often in high sunny habitats, and occur as high as 4000 m above sea level in both the Andes and the Himalayas.[4]

Taxonomy Edit
The genus, Ephedra was first described in 1753 by L.,[7][8][9] and the type species is Ephedra distachya.[8] The family, Ephedraceae, was first described in 1829 by Dumortier.[7][10]

Medical uses Edit

Plant as used in Chinese herbology (crude medicine)
Main article: Ephedra
Plants of the genus Ephedra, including E. sinica and others, have traditionally been used by people for a variety of medicinal purposes, including treatment of asthma, hay fever and the common cold.[11] The alkaloids ephedrine and pseudoephedrine are active constituents of E. sinica and other members of the genus. These compounds are sympathomimetics with stimulant and decongestant qualities and are chemically substituted amphetamines.

Pollen of Ephedra spp. was found in the Shanidar IV burial site in Iraq, which led to the suggestion that its use as a medicinal plant dates to over 60,000 years ago.[12] Paul B. Pettitt has stated that "[a] recent examination of the microfauna from the strata into which the grave was cut suggests that the pollen was deposited by the burrowing rodent Meriones persicus, which is common in the Shanidar microfauna and whose burrowing activity can be observed today".[13] It has been suggested that Ephedra may be the soma plant of Indo-Iranian religion.[14]

Adverse effects Edit
Alkaloids obtained from the species of Ephedra used in herbal medicines, which are used to synthetically prepare pseudoephedrine and ephedrine, can cause cardiovascular events. These events have been associated with arrhythmias, palpitations, tachycardia and myocardial infarction. Caffeine consumption in combination with ephedrine has been reported to increase the risk of these cardiovascular events.[15]

Evolutionary history Edit
The oldest known members of the genus are from the Early Cretaceous, with records being known from the Aptian-Albian of Argentina,[16]China,[17] Portugal and the United States.[18]

Species Edit
Accepted species:[3]

Ephedra alata Decaisne 1824 – North Africa, Arabian Peninsula
Ephedra altissima Desfontaines 1799 non Bové 1834 non Delile 1813 non Buch 1828 – North Africa, Canary Islands
Ephedra americana Humboldt & Bonpland ex Willdenow 1806 – Bolivia, Ecuador, Peru, Argentina, Chile
Ephedra antisyphilitica Berland ex von Meyer 1845 – Clapweed, Erect Ephedra – Texas, Oklahoma, New Mexico, Nuevo León, Coahuila, Chihuahua
Ephedra aphylla Forsskål 1775 – eastern Mediterranean from Libya and Cyprus to the Persian Gulf
Ephedra × arenicola Cutler 1939 – Arizona, Utah (hybrid, E. cutleri × E. torreyana)
Ephedra aspera Engelmann ex Watson 1882 – Boundary Ephedra, Pitamoreal – Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Nevada, California, Chihuahua, Durango, Zacatecas, Sinaloa, Sonora, Baja California
Ephedra aurantiaca Takhtajan & Pachomova 1967 – Caucasus, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan
Ephedra boelckei F.A.Roig – Argentina
Ephedra botschantzevii Pachom. – Kazakhstan, Tuva region of Siberia
Ephedra breana Phil. – Peru, Bolivia, Chile, Argentina
Ephedra brevifoliata Ghahr. – Iran
Ephedra californica S.Wats. – California Ephedra, California Jointfir – California, western Arizona, Baja California
Ephedra chilensis C.Presl – Chile, Argentina
Ephedra compacta Rose – widespread in much of Mexico
Ephedra coryi E.L.Reed – Cory's Ephedra – Texas, New Mexico
Ephedra cutleri Peebles – Navajo Ephedra, Cutler's Ephedra, Cutler Mormon-tea, Cutler's Jointfir – Colorado, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, Wyoming
Ephedra dahurica Turcz. – Siberia, Mongolia
Ephedra dawuensis Y.Yang – Sichuan
Ephedra distachya L. – Joint-pine, Jointfir – southern Europe and central Asia from Portugal to Kazakhstan
Ephedra × eleutherolepis V.A.Nikitin – Tajikistan (hybrid E. intermedia × E. strobilacea)
Ephedra equisetina Bunge – Ma huang – Caucasus, Central Asia, Siberia, Mongolia, Gansu, Hebei, Inner Mongolia, Ningxia, Qinghai, Shanxi, Xinjiang
Ephedra fasciculata A.Nelson – Arizona Ephedra, Arizona Jointfir, Desert Mormon-tea – Arizona, California, Nevada, Utah
Ephedra fedtschenkoae Paulsen – Central Asia, Siberia, Mongolia, Xinjiang
Ephedra foeminea Forssk. – North Africa, Somalia, Balkans, Italy, Middle East; naturalized in Santa Barbara County of California
Ephedra foliata Boiss. ex C.A.Mey. – North Africa, Somalia, Middle East, India
Ephedra fragilis Desf. – Mediterranean, Canary Islands, Madeira
Ephedra frustillata Miers – Patagonian Ephedra – Chile, Argentina
Ephedra funerea Coville & Morton – Death Valley Ephedra, Death Valley Jointfir – California, Arizona, Nevada
Ephedra gerardiana Wallich ex C.A.Meyer – Gerard's Jointfir, Shan Ling Ma Huang – Himalayas, Tibet, Yunnan, Siberia, Central Asia
Ephedra glauca Regel – Iran, Central Asia, Mongolia
Ephedra holoptera Riedl – Iran
Ephedra intermedia Schrenk & C.A.Meyer – China, Siberia, Central Asia, Himalayas, Iran, Pakistan
Ephedra × intermixta H.C.Cutler – New Mexico (hybrid E. trifurca × E. torreyana)
Ephedra kardangensis P.Sharma & P.L.Uniyal – western Himalayas
Ephedra khurikensis P.Sharma & P.L.Uniyal – western Himalayas
Ephedra laristanica Assadi – Iran
Ephedra lepidosperma C.Y.Cheng – northern China
Ephedra likiangensis Florin – Guizhou, Sichuan, Tibet, Yunnan
Ephedra lomatolepis Schrenk – Kazakhstan, Tuva region of Siberia
Ephedra major Host – Mediterranean, Middle East, Central Asia; from Canary Islands to Kashmir
Ephedra milleri Freitag & Maier-St. – Oman, Yemen
Ephedra minuta Florin – Qinghai, Sichuan
Ephedra monosperma C.A.Meyer – Siberia, Mongolia, much of China including Tibet and Xinjiang
Ephedra multiflora Phil. ex Stapf – Chile, Argentina
Ephedra nevadensis S.Wats. – Nevada Ephedra, Nevada Jointfir, Nevada Mormon-tea – Baja California, California, Arizona, Nevada, Utah, Oregon
Ephedra ochreata Miers – Argentina
Ephedra oxyphylla Riedl – Afghanistan
Ephedra pachyclada Boiss. – Middle East from Sinai and Yemen to Pakistan
Ephedra pedunculata Engelm. ex S.Wats. – Vine Ephedra, Vine Jointfir – Texas, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Durango, San Luis Potosí, Nuevo León, Zacatecas
Ephedra pentandra Pachom. – Iran
Ephedra przewalskii Stapf – Central Asia, Mongolia, Pakistan, Gansu, Inner Mongolia, Ningxia, Qinghai, Tibet
Ephedra pseudodistachya Pachom. – Siberia, Mongolia
Ephedra regeliana Florin – Xi Zi Ma Huang – Central Asia, Siberia, Pakistan, Xinjiang
Ephedra rhytidosperma Pachom. – Gansu, Inner Mongolia, Ningxia, Mongolia
Ephedra rituensis Y.Yang, D.Z.Fu & G.H.Zhu – Qinghai, Xinjiang, Tibet
Ephedra rupestris Benth. – Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina
Ephedra sarcocarpa Aitch. & Hemsl. -Pakiostan, Afghanistan
Ephedra sinica Stapf – Cao Ma Huang, Chinese ephedra – Mongolia, Siberia, Primorye, Manchuria
Ephedra somalensis Freitag & Maier-St. – Somalia, Eritrea
Ephedra strobilacea Bunge – Iran, Central Asia
Ephedra sumlingensis P.Sharma & P.L.Uniyal – western Himalayas
Ephedra tilhoana Maire – Chad
Ephedra torreyana S.Wats. – Torrey's Ephedra, Torrey's Jointfir, Torrey's Mormon-tea, Cañutillo – Nevada, Utah, Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, Chihuahua
Ephedra transitoria Riedl – Iraq, Syria, Palestine, Saudi Arabia
Ephedra triandra Tul. -Bolivia, Argentina
Ephedra trifurca Torrey ex S.Wats. – Longleaf Ephedra, Longleaf Jointfir, Longleaf Mormon-tea, Popotilla, Teposote – California, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, Chihuahua, Sonora, Baja California
Ephedra tweedieana C.A.Mey. – Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay
Ephedra viridis Coville – Green Ephedra, Green Mormon-tea – California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, Wyoming, South Dakota, Oregon
Ephedra vvedenskyi Pachom. – Iran, Caucasus, Turkmenistan
Ephedra yangthangensis Prabha Sharma & Rita Singh – Yangthang to Ka, Leo, Nako, Chango, Chulling, Sumdo, Hoorling and Lira of Kinnaur district of Himachal Pradesh[19]
Economic botany and alkaloid content Edit
Earliest uses of Ephedra spp. (mahuang) for specific illnesses date back to 5000 BC. Ephedrine and isomers were already isolated in 1881 from Ephedra dystachia and characterized by the Japanese organic chemist Nagai Nagayoshi of the 19th century. His work to access Ephedra drug materials to isolate a pure pharmaceutical substance, and the systematic production of semi-synthetic derivatives thereof is relevant still today as the three species Ephedra sinica, Ephedra vulgaris and to a lesser extent Ephedra equisetina are commercially grown in Mainland China as a source for natural ephedrines and isomers for use in pharmacy. E. sinica and E. vulgaris usually carry six optically active phenylethylamines, mostly ephedrine and pseudoephedrine with minor amounts of norephedrine, norpseudoephedrine as well as the three methylated analogs. Reliable information on the total alkaloid content of the crude drug is difficult to obtain. Based on HPLC analyses in industrial settings, the concentrations of total alkaloids in dried Herba Ephedra ranged between 1 and 4%, and in some cases up to 6%.[20]

For a review of the alkaloid distribution in different species of the genus Ephedra see Jian-fang Cui (1991).[21] Other American and European species of Ephedra, e.g. Ephedra nevadensis (Nevada Mormon tea) have not been systematically assayed; based on unpublished field investigations, they contain very low levels (less than 0.1%) or none at all.[22]

References Edit
Kramer KU, Green PS, Götz E (1990). Kramer KU, Green PS (eds.). The Families and Genera of Vascular Plants, Vol. 1: Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. pp. 379–381. ISBN 3540517944.
"Ephedrales Dumort". EU-NOMEN. Retrieved 20 January 2016.
Kew World Checklist of Selected Plant Families
Judd WS, Campbell CS, Kellog EA, Stevens PF, Donoghue MJ (2007). Plant Systematics, a phylogenetic approach (3rd. ed.). Sinauer associates, Inc.
"Family "Ephedraceae"". Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. Retrieved 5 July 2019.
Messina A (2014). "VicFlora: Ephedraceae". Victoria, Australia: Royal Botanic Gardens Foundation. Retrieved 5 July 2019.
The Gymnosperm database: Ephedra. Retrieved 5 July 2019.
Linnaeus C (1753). Species Plantarum. 2. p. 1040.
Linnaeus C (1754). "Genera plantarum". p. 462.
Dumortier BC (1829). Analyse des familles des plantes, avec l'indication des principaux genres qui s'y rattachent. Tournay: J. Casterman aîné. p. 11.
Abourashed EA, El-Alfy AT, Khan IA, Walker L (August 2003). "Ephedra in perspective--a current review". Phytotherapy Research. 17 (7): 703–12. doi:10.1002/ptr.1337. PMID 12916063. S2CID 41083359.
Solecki RS (1975). "Shanidar IV, a Neanderthal Flower Burial in Northern Iraq". Science. 190 (4217): 880–881. Bibcode:1975Sci...190..880S. doi:10.1126/science.190.4217.880. JSTOR 1741776. S2CID 71625677.
Pettitt PB (2002). "The Neanderthal dead: exploring mortuary variability in Middle Palaeolithic Eurasia" (PDF). Before Farming. 1 (4): 1–26. doi:10.3828/bfarm.2002.1.4.
Rudgley R (1993). The Alchemy of Culture. London: British Museum Press. pp. 44–45. ISBN 0-7141-2711-6.
Skalli S, Zaid A, Soulaymani R (December 2007). "Drug interactions with herbal medicines". Therapeutic Drug Monitoring. 29 (6): 679–686. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.326.6981. doi:10.1097/FTD.0b013e31815c17f6. PMID 18043467. S2CID 17042490.
Puebla GG, Iglesias A, Gómez MA, Prámparo MB (November 2017). "Fossil record of Ephedra in the Lower Cretaceous (Aptian), Argentina". Journal of Plant Research. 130 (6): 975–988. doi:10.1007/s10265-017-0953-1. PMID 28528483. S2CID 23766815.
Yang Y, Wang Q (2013-01-14). "The earliest fleshy cone of Ephedra from the early cretaceous Yixian Formation of northeast China". PLOS ONE. 8 (1): e53652. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...853652Y. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0053652. PMC 3544918. PMID 23341964.
Rydin C, Pedersen KR, Crane PR, Friis EM (July 2006). "Former diversity of Ephedra (Gnetales): evidence from Early Cretaceous seeds from Portugal and North America". Annals of Botany. 98 (1): 123–40. doi:10.1093/aob/mcl078. PMC 2803531. PMID 16675607.
Sharma P, Singh R (December 2016). "Ephedra yangthangensis (Ephedraceae), a new species from Himachal Pradesh, India. Bangladesh". Journal of Plant Taxonomy. 23 (2): 195–8. doi:10.3329/bjpt.v23i2.30850.
Brossi A, ed. (1989). The Alkaloids: Chemistry and Pharmacology. 35. ISBN 0-12-469535-3.
Kim HK, Choi YH, Erkelens C, Lefeber AW, Verpoorte R (January 2005). "Metabolic fingerprinting of Ephedra species using 1H-NMR spectroscopy and principal component analysis". Chemical & Pharmaceutical Bulletin. 53 (1): 105–9. doi:10.1002/pca.2800020305. PMID 15635242.
Hegnauer R. (1962) "Chemotaxonomie der Pflanzen. I". Birkhauser Verlag, Basel; Switzerland, pp. 460–462 as cited in Roman MC (2004). "Determination of ephedrine alkaloids in botanicals and dietary supplements by HPLC-UV: collaborative study". Journal of AOAC International. 87 (1): 1–14. doi:10.1093/jaoac/87.1.1. PMC 2584348. PMID 15084081.
External links Edit
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ephedra.
Ephedra viridis (Plants for a Future Database)
Usage in Chinese Medicine
Ephedra fact sheet, NIH National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health
Ephedrea (Evidence and dosing), Mayo Clinic
Ephedra - Clinical summary and mechanism of action, MSKCC Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center
Ephedraceae of Mongolia in FloraGREIF
Last edited 1 month ago by Hammelsmith
RELATED ARTICLES
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Medicinal preparation from the plant Ephedra sinica

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Erythroxylum coca

Erythroxylum coca is one of two species of cultivated coca

Coca
Erythroxylum coca - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-204.jpg
Scientific classification edit
Kingdom:
Plantae
Clade:
Tracheophytes
Clade:
Angiosperms
Clade:
Eudicots
Clade:
Rosids
Order:
Malpighiales
Family:
Erythroxylaceae
Genus:
Erythroxylum
Species:
E. coca
Binomial name
Erythroxylum coca
Lam.
Description Edit
The coca plant resembles a blackthorn bush, and grows to a height of 2–3 m (7–10 ft). The branches are straight, and the leaves, which have a green tint, are thin, opaque, oval, and taper at the extremities. A marked characteristic of the leaf is an areolated portion bounded by two longitudinal curved lines, one line on each side of the midrib, and more conspicuous on the under face of the leaf.

The flowers are small, and disposed in little clusters on short stalks; the corolla is composed of five yellowish-white petals, the anthers are heart-shaped, and the pistil consists of three carpels united to form a three-chambered ovary. The flowers mature into red berries.

Unlike Erythroxylum novogranatense, Erythroxylum coca requires very acidic soil conditions. Soil acidity and water acidity need to be below pH 5.5, with the optimal value being pH 3.5, similar to that of Rhododendron potting soils. At pH 6.5 and above, chlorosis and leaf distortion occur.[1]

The leaves are sometimes eaten by the larvae of the moth Eloria noyesi.

Taxonomy Edit
Among the genus Erythroxylum, cocaine-rich leaves are obtained from four taxa:

Erythroxylum coca var. coca
Erythroxylum coca var. ipadu
Erythroxylum novogranatense var. novogranatense
Erythroxylum novogranatense var. truxillense (see also Coca#Species and evolution)
Amazonian coca Edit
Erythroxylum coca var. ipadu, also known as Amazonian coca, is closely related to Erythroxylum coca var. coca, from which it originated relatively recently.[2] E. coca var. ipadu does not escape cultivation or survive as a feral or wild plant like E. coca var. coca [3] It has been suggested that due to a lack of genetic isolation to differentiate it from E. coca var. coca, E. coca var. ipadu may be better defined as a distinct cultivar than a taxonomic variety.[4]

Unlike the other species of coca which are propagated through seeds, E. coca var. ipadu, which rarely produce seeds, is propagated through stem cuttings which remain viable for several weeks if kept moist.[3] Since Amazonian coca is vegetatively propagated, entire plantations may be populated from the same clone. E. coca var. ipadu is specially adapted to the shifting agriculture of semi-nomadic Amazonian peoples. Since cuttings of E. coca var. coca do not easily root, it is likely that E. coca var. ipadu has been artificially selected for its ease of vegetative propagation.[3] In contrast to the Andean E. coca var. coca, Amazonian E. coca var. ipadu is typically a weaker plant evidenced by the fact that after a few years plants lose their vigor and easily fall prey to disease or insect infestation. Overharvesting can speed up this process.[5]

Amazonian coca is prepared differently than the other three cultivated cocas. After fire-toasting the leaves dry, they are pulverized. Once sifted, the powder is combined with ashes from plants which serve as the necessary alkaline admixture for coca chewing.[5]

See also Edit
Coca alkaloids
References Edit
Citations Edit
Johnson, Emanuel L.; Campbell, T. Austin; Foy, Charles D. (November 1997). "Effect of soil pH on mineral element concentrations of two erythroxylum species". Journal of Plant Nutrition. 20 (11): 1503–1515. doi:10.1080/01904169709365352.
Plowman T. "Botanical Perspectives on Coca." Journal of Psychedelic Drugs. 1979. 11(1-2): 103-117.
Plowman T. "The Origin, Evolution, and Diffusion of Coca, Erythroxylum spp., in South and Central America." In: Stone D, ed. Pre-Columbian Plant Migration. Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology. Harvard University. Vol 76. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press; 1984. p. 125-163.
Bohm B, Ganders F, Plowman T. Biosystematics and Evolution of Cultivated Coca (Erythroxylaceae). Systematic Botany. 1982; 7(2): 121-133.
Plowman T. Amazonian Coca. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 1981. 3: 195 - 225.
Sources Edit
Turner C. E., Elsohly M. A., Hanuš L., Elsohly H. N. Isolation of dihydrocuscohygrine from Peruvian coca leaves. Phytochemistry 20 (6), 1403-1405 (1981)
History of Coca. The Divine Plant of the Incas by W. Golden Mortimer, M.D. 576 pp. And/Or Press San Francisco, 1974. This title has no ISBN.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Coca". Encyclopædia Britannica. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 614–615.
External links Edit
Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
Erythroxylum coca (category)
Wikispecies has information related to Erythroxylum coca.
Coca leaf: Myths and Reality website of the Transnational Institute (TNI)
Unscheduling the coca leaf, UN Drug Control website of the Transnational Institute (TNI)
Coca leaf news page – Alcohol and Drugs History Society
Erythroxylum coca flower closeup
Last edited 27 days ago by ShortDescBot
RELATED ARTICLES
Coca
Group of plant varieties cultivated for coca production

Erythroxylum novogranatense
Species of flowering plant

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Content is available under CC BY-SA 3.0 unless otherwise noted

تاريخ انتاج المنشطات

1-هانريش وانكودر وفريديك جيدك 1853 1855
Ueber das Erythroxylin, dargestellt aus den Blättern des in Südamerika cultivirten Strauches Erythroxylon Coca Lam

شجرة الكوكا كوكا مينك البوتاس صودا الخبز مغنيسيا حديد المنغنيز املاح كبريتيه الكلور السيليكا حمض الكرنب الرمل خسارة الماء المغلي ديكوتيون الرصاص حمض الاسيتيك اكسيد التانين كبريتيد الهيددروجين حمض الطرطريك نحاس ميدكالي اكسيد النحاس سكر الكروم مستخلص استرطابي يكون الايثانول الكلورفيل صبغة تخضير الحديد اسيتات الصوديوم اكسيد النتريك الزئبق اكسيد الزئبق الامونيا حامض البيتريك كلوريد الكالسيوم حمض اليوسينيكUsninsiiure نباتsaxatilis بروفيرينentdcclrte الاحماض الدباليهQegenwart yon Zncker الكلورفورم الثيوبرومين كحول وانكودر

2-البرت نيمان 1860
Ueber eine neue organische Base in den Cocablättern​



3- فيلهلم لوسين 1862
Über das Cocain



4-أنجيلو مارياني 1863
Vin Mariani أنجيلو مارياني 1863


5-توضيح هيكل الكوكايين
بيوديد الهيدروجين وحمض الهيدروكلوريك وغبار الزنك
tropine C8 H15 NO يعود إلى اودلف باير

                                                                                            6-سيموغند فرويد1884
Über Coca



7-الفريدو بينون 1884
A Forgotten Case of “ScientificExcellence on the Periphery”:The Nationalist Cocaine Scienceof Alfredo Bignon, 1884– 1887


       
8-تقدم النظريه الكيميائيه للعلماء 1885
بحلول هذا الوقت ، كانت النظرية الكيميائية قد تقدمت بشكل كافٍ لعلماء القرن التاسع عشر لاستنتاج أن الإيكغونين يحتوي على مجموعة هيدروكسيل يمكن أن تستقر بحمض البنزويك ومجموعة أ- COOH التي يمكن أسترةها بالميثانول. كان المنتج من مثل هذا الأسترة المزدوجة هو الكوكايين



9-ناجاي نايغوشي 1885                                                            
بعد اكتشاف الايفيدرين في عام 1892 ، كانت الأطروحة الأولى (مجلة الصيدلة) تناقش التركيب الكيميائي. في ذلك الوقت ، كانت مكتوبة بشكل عمودي

                         
​
10-ايثيل بريدين 1887
وفي عام 1887 ، تم الحصول على 2-ethyl pyridine (1)] - أول مادة لهيكل معروف مشتق من "جوهر" الجزيء في تسلسل الكوكايين / الأتروبين يشير هذا إلى أن جزءًا من جزيء التروبين (وبالتالي جزءًا من جزيء الكوكايين) يحتوي على حلقة بيريدين مخفضة (أو مخفضة جزئيًا) مرتبطة بذرتي كربون متصلتين



11-البرت ليدبرنج 1887
يحتوي Tropine ، C8H15ON على مجموعة هيدروكسيل ويتصرف كمركب مشبع. أظهر Ladenburg (1883 ، 1887) أن الجزيء يحتوي على نواة بيريدين مخفضة. قاده عمله إلى اقتراح بنيتين محتملتين للتروبين ، (4) و (5):


12-لازار ادلينو الامفتامين1887
حصل على الدكتوراه من عام 1883 إلى 1887 في جامعة برلين تحت إشراف أغسطس فيلهلم فون هوفمان مع أطروحة حول التوليف الأول للأمفيتامين ، والذي نجح في ذلك في 18 يناير 1887​


13-ألفريد أينهورن 1888
                                                                                             أظهر ألفريد أينهورن أن الكوكايين سيشكل ملح الأمونيوم الرباعي عند العلاج بـ CH3 I]

وهي خاصية للأمينات الثلاثية. وهكذا فإن النيتروجين في الجزيء يرتبط تساهميًا بثلاث ذرات كربون ، وليس ذرات هيدروجين تصرفت مجموعة الهيدروكسيل في ecgonine مثل الكحول الثانوي ، حيث أنتجت كيتون (ecgoninone ، 1898) على الأكسدة. عند التسخين اللطيف ، فقد هذا الجزيء مجموعته الحمضية لتكوين المنتج المعروف تروبينون. كان هذا أحد منتجات أكسدة التروبين ، وهو قاعدة ثالثة مشتقة من قلويدات الأتروبين والهيوسيامين ، وكلاهما له خصائص طبية / فسيولوجية. كان العمل على هذين المركبين يجري بالتوازي مع العمل على الكوكايين ، غالبًا من قبل نفس مجموعات البحث. وهذا يعني أن تحديد بنية أي من التروبين أو التروبينون أو الإكغونينون سيمكن "التتبع الخلفي" لاستنتاج بنية الكوكايين                                               


                                         
14-ألفريد أينهورن 1889
في عام 1889 ، دفع هذا ألفريد​ أينهورن إلى اقتراح هيكل ذي صلة بـ ecgonine ، انظر (3)



كارل ليبرمان
ومع ذلك ، تحدى كارل ليبرمان هذين الهيكلين لأنه يستطيع أكسدة كل من ecgonine والتروبين إلى حمض التروبينيك. على الرغم من أن هذا المنتج كان لا يزال بنية غير مؤكدة ، إلا أنه حافظ على كل من نظام الحلقات وتجميع N-CH3 ، ولكن بشكل حاسم ، احتوى على مجموعتين من COOH. من شأن أكسدة جزيئات آينهورن ولادينبورغ أن تنتج منتجات مقابلة تحتوي فقط على مجموعة حمض الكربوكسيل خارج الحلقات الخارجية



15-كارل ليبرمان 1891
عام 1891 ، ابتكر ليبرمان نسخته الخاصة من التروبين (4) و ecgonine (5)بعد كعب ليبرمان



16-جورج ميرلنج 1891
اقترح جورج ميرلينج نسختين أقل توترًا من التروبين ، انظر (6) و (7) (تمت كتابة هذه الهياكل والتركيبات اللاحقة على أنها هياكل "شبه ثلاثية الأبعاد" ، على الرغم من أن الكيميائيين في ذلك الوقت رسموا جزيئاتهم على شكل هياكل مستوية



17-ناجاي نايغوشي 1893
أنتج الميثافيتامين


18-ريتشارد ويلستر
في عام 1898 ، لاحظ ريتشارد ويلستاتير أن التروبينون شكل مشتقًا ثنائي بنزال عند العلاج بالبنزالديهايد. يشير هذا إلى وجود تجمع a -CH2 -CO-CH2 داخل الجزيء ، مع كل ميثان لديه القدرة على التكثيف باستخدام ألدهيد. قام بتكييف أفكار Merling لدمج هذه المجموعة (مع اختزال الكربونيل إلى CHOH) واقترح عدة هياكل للتروبين ، بما في ذلك
عن طريق سلسلة طويلة إلى حد ما من التفاعلات ، تمكن ويلستاتير من تحويل التروبين إلى سيكلوهيبتينون. استبعد هذا الهيكل (9) نظرًا لأن الحد الأقصى للحلقة الكربونية الحلقية التي يمكن أن ينتجها هذا سيحتوي فقط على ست ذرات كربون. في الواقع ، كانت البنية ( هي الصيغة الصحيحة للتروبين واستمر ، في عام 1898 ، في استنتاج بنى ecgonine (10) والكوكايين (11).
بقيت مهمتان - تأكيد الهيكل في بعدين وثلاثة أبعاد. لتأكيد الهيكل المقترح ، كان على Willstätter تخليق المادة من مواد بداية بسيطة ذات بنية معروفة. إذا تطابق الهدف المركب مع المنتج الطبيعي ، فيمكن ضمان الصيغة

التروبين
أنتجه  العلماء الذين الذين عملوا على عزل الكوكايين من شجرة الكوكايين
كتب لريتشارد ويلستر عن التروبين
https://ethz.ch/en/utils/search.html?language=en&site_filter=false&lang_filter=false&pagetype=all&search-verbatim=false&order=1&newsperiod=1&newsstart=&newsend=&search=Tropin+Richard+Willstätter&x=0&y=0

تحويل التروبين الى سيكلوهبتانون
Synthesen in der Tropingruppe. I. Synthese des Tropilidens
Richard Willsatter
https://zenodo.org/record/1427527#.YGUGIXNRU0M

انتاج التروبينون
وكان التوليف الأول من tropinone التي كتبها ريشارد فيلشتيتر في عام 1901. وبدأت من ما يبدو ذات الصلة cycloheptanone ، ولكن يتطلب العديد من الخطوات لتقديم جسر النيتروجين. العائد الإجمالي لمسار التوليف هو 0.75٪ فقط. [4] كان ويلستاتر قد صنع سابقًا الكوكايين من التروبينون ، فيما كان أول توليف وتوضيح لهيكل الكوكايين


https://chemistry.mdma.ch/hiveboard/rhodium/pdf/tropinone.willstatter-1896.pdf

انتاج الكوكايين من التروبينون
https://chemistry.mdma.ch/hiveboard/rhodium/pdf/cocaine.willstatter-1901a.pdf



19انتج اكيرا اوجاتا 1919
أنه يحتوي على الفوسفور الأحمر وحمض Hydroiodic. الايفيدرين معالج باليود بواسطة حمض الهيدرويوديك لتكوين اليودوفيدرين. في الخطوة الثانية ، يستهلك الفوسفور الأحمر اليود لتكوين ثلاثي اليود الفوسفور.الميثامفيتامين المنتج بهذه الطريقة عادة ما يكون نقيًا بنسبة 95٪


20-ريتشارد ويلستاتير 1922
أعد Willstätter الكوكايين الاصطناعي وفقًا لصيغته ، بدءًا من الديالديهيد السكسيني

6 علاوة على ذلك ، كان قادرًا على حل وسيط ecgonine الراسيمي في التسلسل ليخرج أخيرًا بـ (-) - الكوكايين ، الأيزومر الفراغي الطبيعي. لإكمال الصورة ثلاثية الأبعاد ، كان من الضروري إنشاء تكوينات للمراكز اللولبية داخل الجزيء. اليوم ، سيتم حل هذه المشكلة عن طريق علم البلورات بالأشعة السينية


21-في الخمسينيات من القرن الماضي ، كان الكيميائيون يصنعون الجزيء
بدءًا من جزيء معروف التكوين
[(S) (+) - حمض الجلوتاميك]١
تم تنفيذ هذا العمل من قبل E.Hardegger
، الذي أظهر أن (-) - الكوكايين هو
(-) - 2R -methoxy-carbonyl-3S -benzoxyloxytropane
، انظر الهيكل (12)



Albert Ladenburg
Alfred Einhorn
Carl Lieberman
Georg Merling
Richard Willsatter

شجرة الشوكلاته

شجرة القات

شجرة القهوه

شجرة الافدرين

شجرة الكوكا

شجرة التبغ نيكونتيانا

شجرة الشاهي

شجرة الكولا



السجائر

السعوط

القهوه

الشاهي

الايفدرين

السودافدرين

الشوكلاته

الكوكايين

الامفتامين

القات الكيميائي

الميثافيتامين

هيدروكلوريد الميثافيتامين